Capoeira is an Afro-Brazilian cultural expression that combines elements of martial arts, dance, music, and acrobatics.
The origin of capoeira is closely linked to the history of African people brought to Brazil as slaves.
From the 16th century onwards, thousands of Africans were forced to work on sugar plantations and other sectors of the Brazilian colonial economy.
In this context of oppression, violence, and exploitation, African slaves began to develop forms of cultural and physical resistance, of which capoeira is a significant expression.
In official history, priority was always given to events seen from the perspective of the dominant class, which resulted in a lack of information about the culture of the oppressed, especially Indigenous and African people.
Because of this, this review article aims to describe the origins and recover the history of capoeira.
Most of the documentation related to the slavery period was burned by order of Ruy Barbosa, the Minister of Finance under the government of Deodoro da Fonseca, in 1890 (OLIVEIRA, 1989).
With these documents destroyed, over time, facts about the history of capoeira may have been forgotten or distorted, as much of what is known today about the capoeira practiced by slaves has been passed down verbally through generations.
However, with its elements of body expression, such as the ginga, acrobatics, and flourishes, and its communicative elements, like singing and music, capoeira has remained alive in Brazilian popular culture. It has endured from the beginnings of our history because it has captivated many who dedicated themselves to it wholeheartedly.
Today, capoeira is widely practiced throughout the country, but there is still great difficulty in finding documents about its roots.
Video – History and Origin of Capoeira in Brazil
HISTORY AND ORIGINS OF CAPOEIRA IN BRAZIL
- BLACK PEOPLE IN BRAZIL
- SLAVES AND CAPOEIRA
- THE PERSECUTION OF CAPOEIRA
- CAPOEIRA STYLES
- THE MESTRES OF CAPOEIRA
- CAPOEIRA’S RHYTHMIC ELEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS
- CONCLUSION
1. BLACK PEOPLE IN BRAZIL
The history of capoeira is closely linked to the history of black people in Brazil. When the Europeans arrived here, they needed to find cheap labour to exploit the land.
The indigenous people, who were immediately captured, reacted to slavery and couldn’t stand the mistreatment they were subjected to. The colonisers then needed to find new slave labour, and to do so they brought blacks from Africa.
Areias (1983), in his work ‘O que é Capoeira’(What is Capoeira), pointed out that the blacks were taken from their habitat, put in the holds of ships and taken to the new horizons recently discovered by the great powers of the time.
According to researchers Arnt and Banalume Neto (1995, p. 36):
‘Slaves were sold by chiefs of enemy tribes or, as in Angola, the Portuguese themselves invaded the interior kidnapping what they called ‘pieces of India’.’
Petta (1996, p. 51), in his article ‘O jeito brasileiro de ir à luta’, comments:
‘Scholars claim that it was around 1550 that the first African slaves began to disembark in Brazil, coming from different tribes, bringing their customs, their cultures.’
Oliveira (1989, p. 21), also known as Mestre Bola Sete, in his book ‘A Capoeira Angola na Bahia’, states that:
‘The first African slaves to arrive in Brazil, and the ones who came in the greatest number, were the Bantu blacks, originally from Angola.’
When they arrived here, they were separated so that a master wouldn’t keep blacks who spoke the same dialect, in order to prevent them from communicating and starting rebellions.
The relationship between the masters and the black slaves was one of ownership, resulting from payment for their acquisition. The masters thought they had the right to demand the hardest labour from the blacks.
In this respect, Areias (1996, p. 11) states:
‘Working from sun up to sun down, commanded by the whips of the overseers, they cleared the forests, prepared the land, planted the sugar cane and produced, with the bitterness of their suffering, sugar, the sweet wealth of their masters.’
In addition to the suffering inflicted on the blacks, the distance from their homeland, combined with all the other adverse conditions found in the new lands, made them rebel.
So, in order to prevent the slave regime from collapsing, more punishment and torture was applied to the slaves.
How could they defend themselves in such an inferior situation?
According to Mestre Pastinha (1988, p. 28), in his work Capoeira Angola:
‘Black Africans in colonial Brazil were slaves, and in such an inhuman condition they were not allowed to use any weapon or practice any means of self-defence that might endanger the safety of their masters.’
2. SLAVES AND CAPOEIRA
Rego (1968, p. 21), author of Capoeira Angola: ensaio sócio-etnográfico, says that the meaning of the word capoeirais:
‘Nowadays Tupinologists are almost unanimous in accepting the term caá, bush, virgin forest, plus puêra, past tense nominal meaning what was and no longer exists.’
There are many differences of opinion among researchers about the true origin of capoeira.
One of the reasons that contributed to making it difficult to know the origins of capoeira is emphasised by Mello (1996, p. 29), who said:
‘Ruy Barbosa, when Minister of Finance, with the argument of erasing the black history of slavery, ordered the incineration of vast documentation relating to that period.’
For some authors who study the subject, capoeira was an invention of black people in Africa, where it existed as a form of ritualistic dance.
Later, with the process of Brazilian colonialism and the arrival of black slaves from Africa, capoeira appeared here as a form of self-defence for slaves against their mill oppressors (SANTOS, 1990, p. 19).
In Pastinha’s view (1988, p. 26):
‘There is no doubt that capoeira came to Brazil with the African slaves.’
For Marinho (1956) there is no doubt that capoeira was brought to Brazil by Bantu Africans, mainly from Angola.
‘For other researchers, scholars of Afro-Brazilian and African culture and historians, capoeira emerged in Brazil as a result of a process of acculturation in favour of the human freedom of the black race enslaved by the rulers of colonial Brazil (SANTOS, 1990, p. 19).’
For Areias (1983), as the African slaves had no weapons to defend themselves against their enemies – the overseers, the plantation owners – driven by the natural instinct to preserve life, they discovered in themselves their weapon, the art of hitting with their bodies, similar to animal fights, their thrashing, kicking, jumping and booting.
They also took advantage of their cultural manifestations brought from Africa, their dances, songs and movements. This is how what we call capoeira today was born.
Areias (1996, p. 15-16), in a later publication, added:
‘Having mother nature as their teacher […], using the structures of the manifestations brought from Africa […], the blacks created and practised a fight of self-defence to face the enemy.’
Reis (1997a, p. 19), in an identical position, states:
‘Capoeira is a Brazilian cultural manifestation born in circumstances of the struggle for freedom, in the times of slavery.’
Some authors question the fact that capoeira arose only in Brazil, although Africans of Bantu origin were taken to various other countries at the same time.
Capoeira (1998, p. 34), in his work Capoeira – pequeno manual do jogador, said:
‘We now have an idea of how capoeira was born: a mixture of various fights, dances, rituals and musical instruments from various parts of Africa. A mixture realised on Brazilian soil, during slavery, probably in Salvador and the Recôncavo Baiano during the 17th century.’
We should also mention the researcher Rego (1968), who, in view of a series of data collected in written documents and, above all, in constant contact and dialogue with people of the time or older who practised capoeira in Bahia, maintains that capoeira was born in Brazil, created by Africans and developed by their Afro-Brazilian descendants.
3. THE PERSECUTION OF CAPOEIRA
Once capoeira emerged and became part of their lives, blacks practised it both on the farms and in the terreiros.
However, according to Mello (1996, p. 32),
‘This practice took place in a clandestine manner, because once it was used as a weapon of struggle, the plantation lords began to vehemently censure it, subjecting all those who practised it to terrible torture.’
Santos (1990, p. 19) comments that in order to ensure capoeira’s survival at that time, the capoeiristas, when in the presence of the plantation lords, practised it as a joke, when in fact they were training.
The berimbau, which was used to give rhythm, was also used to announce the arrival of a feitor, in other words, the time to turn the fight into a dance.
‘With the passage of time, our colonisers realised the fatal power of capoeira, banning it and labelling it a ‘black art’ (SANTOS, 1990, p. 34).’
In the article ‘The face of Zumbi’, by Arnt and Banalume Neto (1995, p. 37), it says that the black man
‘Any sign of rebellion was punished. After being whipped, the runaways were given a cocktail of salt, lemon and urine on their wounds.’
In his book Zumbi, Santos (1985) tells us that in 1597, forty slaves fled at once from a plantation in the south of Pernambuco and, armed with scythes and clubs, massacred the free population of the plantation. Knowing that they would be hunted down furiously one by one, they walked towards the setting sun. He also said that on the twentieth morning they felt safe because, from where they were, they could perfectly see anyone coming from anywhere.
Prata (1987, p. 7), in his article ‘A arte marcial do Brasil’, says that:
‘during the Dutch invasions in 1624, the slaves and Indians (the first two victims of colonisation), taking advantage of the confusion generated, fled into the forests.’
In the forests, the blacks formed quilombos, with the Quilombo de Palmares being one of the most important, the largest of all the other strongholds of fugitive blacks, located in the Serra da Barriga, in the state of Alagoas.
According to Arnt and Banalume Neto (1995, p. 32), ‘Palmares began to emerge in 1597 and lasted until 1694’.
Santos (1990, p. 19) emphasises:
‘After the extinction of the existing quilombos and especially that of Palmares, capoeira was already known as a means of attack and self-defence, more precisely in the states of Bahia, Alagoas, Pernambuco, Rio de Janeiro, among other places where there were slaves fighting for the day of their liberation.’
The researchers Santos and Barros (2001, p. 1), in an article entitled ‘O histórico da capoeira: um curto passeio da origem aos tempos modernos’, point out that
‘in 1888 slavery was abolished and many slaves were left on the streets without jobs and capoeira was one of the means used for their survival.’
Oliveira (1989, p. 22) states:
‘even after slavery was abolished, capoeiristas continued to suffer persecution from the police and were frowned upon by society. As a consequence of this, Areias (1983, p. 31) states that the majority of blacks joined the already famous capoeira gangs and created others […] The rival Guaiamuns and Nagoas in Rio de Janeiro were the most fearsome groups of that time […].’
In 1890, capoeira was considered ‘outside the law’ by the old Penal Code of the Republic. In the chapter dealing with vagrants and capoeiras, article 402 imposed a penalty of two to six months in prison on anyone who dared to
‘exercising agility and bodily dexterity in the streets and public squares known as capoeiragem: walking in rows, with weapons or instruments capable of producing bodily injury, promoting tumult or disorder, threatening a certain or uncertain person, or instilling fear of some evil (REGO, 1968, p. 292).’
About this time, Areias (1983, p. 52) emphasises:
‘[…] transformed into a true acrobatic struggle, perfected and mixed with as many tricks as necessary to escape the persecution of the powerful, capoeira and the capoeiristas managed, with trickery and skill, to get through this stormy period.’
In the 1930s, Getúlio Vargas seized power, overthrowing President Washington Luis, and, according to Capoeira (1999, p. 25), ‘allowed the (guarded) practice of capoeira: only in enclosed spaces and with a police licence’.
Areias (1983, p. 65) comments:
‘no longer persecuted, the capoeiristas, thirsty for expression, infested the streets and squares of the cities with their rodas de capoeira. Capoeira was an integral and obligatory part of all popular festivities.’
Dossar (1991, p. 42) states:
‘the first academy that taught capoeira formally was established by Manoel dos Reis Machado in 1932’.
Mello (1996, p. 34) provides valuable information:
‘an important character in the history of capoeira emerges, Manoel dos Reis Machado, Mestre “Bimba”’.
4. CAPOEIRA STYLES
Capoeira (1985) mentions that there are various styles of capoeira, but the only fundamental ones are traditional Angola and Bimba’s regional style.
4.1. Capoeira Angola
Capoeira (1998) says that Pastinha’s academy practised the traditional style called Capoeira Angola. In his book Capoeira Angola, Pastinha (1988, p. 27) said:
‘The name Capoeira Angola is a consequence of the fact that it was the Angolan slaves in Bahia who were most prominent in its practice.’
Pastinha (1988, p. 28) also adds that:
‘Capoeira Angola resembles a graceful dance where the mischievous ‘ginga’ shows the extraordinary flexibility of the capoeiristas. But Capoeira Angola is, first and foremost, a fight, and a violent fight at that.’
Oliveira (1989, p. 179), in his book Capoeira Angola in Bahia, states:
‘The mestre angoleiro tries to pass on to his disciple the cult of the rituals and precepts that exist in capoeira angola and at the same time prepare him to defend himself without interfering with his potential for creativity, endowing him with a large dose of malice, based on calm and speed.’
4.2. Capoeira Regional
Almeida (1994) pointed out that Bimba took advantage of an old fight in Bahia called ‘Batuque’ – of which his father was a champion – capoeira and his creative genius to create a new style which he called Capoeira Regional.
Bimba said in the book A Saga de Mestre Bimba, by Almeida (1994, p. 17):
‘In 1928 I created, complete, Regional, which is Batuque mixed with Angola, with more blows, a real fight, good for the physique and the mind.’
On the creation of Capoeira Regional, Vieira (1998, p. 1) states:
‘When Regional emerged, there was already a consolidated tradition in capoeira, mainly in the street rodas of Rio de Janeiro and Bahia.’
Capoeira (1998, p. 52) emphasises that:
‘With Bimba’s academy a new era begins: capoeira will attract the middle class and the bourgeoisie of Salvador. Before this, capoeira (in Bahia) was practised exclusively by Africans and their descendants, in other words: the economically poor.’
For Capoeira (1998, p. 52):
‘The teaching method, the new strokes and the new mentality, added to the fact that the majority of Bimba’s students belonged to the middle class, with other values, meant that Bimba’s regional differed greatly from traditional capoeira.’
5. THE MESTRES OF CAPOEIRA
5.1. Mestre Pastinha
Vicente Ferreira Pastinha, known as Mestre Pastinha, was born on 5 April 1889 in the city of Salvador. Oliveira (1989, p. 32) tells us that Pastinha was the son of the Spaniard José Señor Pastinha and a black woman from Bahia called Raimunda dos Santos.
About Mestre Pastinha’s apprenticeship, the book ‘Capoeira’ (1998, p. 54) says that
‘he was initiated, as a boy, by a black man from Angola called Benedito, who constantly saw the boy beaten up by an older boy.’
Capoeira (1998, p. 55) states:
‘Pastinha opened his academy a few years after Bimba’s, and there he practised the traditional style which, to differentiate it from the regional style, he came to call Capoeira Angola. Some authors call it old or outdated, because it predates Capoeira Regional.’
Despite practising this fight, which he considered to be violent, Mestre Pastinha was very well liked.
Capoeira (1998, p. 55) states:
‘With his charisma, axé, gentle and affable personality, Pastinha turned his academy into a place frequented by great angoleiros and by artists such as Carybé and Jorge Amado.’
Even though he dedicated his entire life to capoeira, Mestre Pastinha was not properly recognised.
The author ‘Capoeira’ (1998, p. 57) reports:
‘Already old and almost blind, the authorities took over his academy under the pretext of the renovations of the Largo do Pelourinho. Despite promising a new academy, they never kept their promise. Mestre Pastinha lived the last years of his life in a small room.’
Oliveira (1989, p. 32) said that Mestre Pastinha ‘was considered by the most famous masters of his time to be the most perfect capoeira Angola fighter in Bahia’.
He also gave a brief history of Pastinha’s professional life:
‘He spent 8 years in the Navy, where he was a musician and capoeira instructor, he was a football player, even training with the Ypiranga team, his team of heart, […], he was a shoeshine boy, sold newspapers, practised fencing, helped build the port of Salvador, was a tailor, did gold digging and also took care of ‘gambling houses’, holding the position of ‘lion of the farm’, […]. But all this was fleeting in the mestre’s life, his desire was to make a living from his art, because as well as being a capoeirista, he was a painter and popular poet.’
About his death, Capoeira (1998, p. 57) said:
‘He died at the age of ninety-two, in 1981, leaving many students, the best known of whom are mestre João Grande and mestre João Pequeno.’
5.2. Mestre Bimba
Manoel dos Reis Machado, known as Mestre Bimba, was born on 23 November 1900, in the Engenho Velho neighbourhood, Freguesia de Brotas, in Salvador, Bahia.
Almeida (1994, p. 15) recounts that:
‘At the age of 12, Bimba, the youngest child of D. Martinha, started capoeira on Estrada das Boiadas, today the large black neighbourhood of Liberdade. His master was the African Bentinho, Captain of the Bahian Navigation Company.’
Almeida (1994, p. 16) reports that after some time in capoeira, Bimba:
‘He began to feel that capoeira, which he had practised and taught for a good while, had become folklorised, […], that they were using it for displays in squares and, having eliminated its strong, deadly movements, it left much to be desired in terms of fighting.’
Capoeira (1985, p. 48) states that:
‘Manoel dos Reis Machado […] was one of the greatest capoeiristas of his time. An excellent player, a dangerous fighter, an exceptional and creative berimbau player, a singer with his hands full, he was a man with a strong and striking personality.’
Capoeira (1985, p. 48) says that Bimba
‘abandoned the capoeira angola circles of his time and opened his academy around 1930 and began teaching his own form of capoeira, which was called ‘regional’.’
Vieira (1998, p. 2) said that:
‘With the appearance of Mestre Bimba, the division of the capoeira universe into two parts began, in which some turned to the preservation of traditions and others sought to develop a faster, more combat-orientated capoeira.’
In Almeida (1994, p. 17), Bimba recalls:
‘Until 1918 there was no capoeira school. There were capoeira circles on street corners, at the doors of warehouses, in the middle of the bush. The police forbade it and on one occasion I paid them up to 100 contos de réis to play for two hours.’
According to Vieira (1998, p. 139):
‘Towards the end of his life, Bimba moved to Goiânia in 1973 […]. He died in Goiânia on 5th February 1974, the victim of a stroke.’
6. CAPOEIRA’S RHYTHMIC ELEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS
Capoeira is known to be the only Brazilian fight that uses musical instruments.
Capoeira rodas are rhythmised by the playing of instruments and the clapping of hands by the capoeiristas.
According to Rego (1968, p. 70), capoeira’s musical accompaniment, from its beginnings to the present day, ‘has been provided by the berimbau, pandeiro, adufe, atabaque, ganzá or reco-reco, caxixi and agogô’.
Mestre Pastinha (1988, p. 36) says: ‘the instruments that make up the ensemble are: berimbau, pandeiro, reco-reco, agogô, atabaque and chocalho’.
6.1. Berimbau
The berimbau is an instrument made from a wooden lintel, traditionally the biriba, with a steel wire, and the resonance box is a dry gourd. Freitas (1997, p. 67) states that
‘the berimbau is one of the oldest instruments in the world, originating around fifteen thousand years before Christ, on the African continent.’
Rego (1968, p. 71) admits that ‘The berimbau didn’t exist only for capoeira, it was used by Afro-Brazilians in their festivities and above all in the samba de roda […]’.
Even before joining capoeira, the berimbau was used in other ways. Reis (1997b, p. 201) comments:
‘the so-called belly berimbau appears in the iconography of the chroniclers who visited Brazil in the 19th century, generally associated with travelling trade and begging.’
Freitas (1997, p. 66) stated that ‘the berimbau was the last instrument to be part of capoeira, at the end of the 19th century’.
Almeida (1994, p. 77) tells us about the making of the berimbau by Mestre Bimba:
‘the wood […] had to be ‘biriba’. He removed the steel wire from old tyres, […] the gourd was opened with a sharp knife, then he removed the seeds and sanded with fine sandpaper.’
It was only after everything had been prepared that Mestre Bimba began to assemble his berimbau.
According to ‘Capoeira’ (1998, p. 83),
‘the berimbau is held in the left hand together with a coin which, whether or not it touches the steel string, allows the sound of two musical notes to be obtained.’
Pastinha (1988, p. 36) adds:
‘the right hand holds the stick with the thumb, index and middle fingers, leaving the little and ring fingers to keep the caxixi fixed […].’
On the technique of playing the instrument, Capoeira (1998, p. 83) teaches:
‘by moving the instrument closer or further away from the body, and pressing the coin with more or less force, we can achieve some variations on the two basic notes.’
It is well known that in a capoeira roda the sound of the berimbau is fundamental to the capoeiristas’ game. Areias (1983, p. 93) states: ‘there are various types of games, always governed by the touch of its excellence, the berimbau’.
According to Mestre Pastinha (1988, p. 41),
‘the tuning of the berimbau is achieved by suspending or lowering the string that connects the resonance box (gourd) to the wire or sound rope.’
There are also different berimbau tones, and Oliveira (1989, p. 61) explains that ‘some have undergone modifications and others were invented by some mestres, and there is also a great deal of confusion about their original names’. Capoeira (1998) comments, in relation to the berimbau tones, that a few are known and played by everyone, such as Angola, São-Bento-Pequeno and São-Bento-Grande.
Reis (1997b, p. 203) comments:
‘as well as being responsible for the style and type of game that is played, the berimbau also determines the rhythm of capoeira songs which comprise the ladainhas, the quadras and the cantos corridos.’
6.2. Pandeiro
The pandeiro is a percussion instrument, also traditional in the capoeira roda. Rego (1968, p. 80) states that,
‘in Brazil, the pandeiro was introduced by the Portuguese in the first procession to take place in Brazil, the Corpus Christi procession in Bahia on 13 June 1549.’
After that, it was used by blacks in their revelry.
Freitas (1997, p. 75) comments:
‘in capoeira the thin leather pandeiro is used more, not only because of the tradition of the old capoeiras, but because of the sound it produces. The leather pandeiro produces a more primitive sound, muffled and pleasant to listen to.’
6.3. Reco-reco
The reco-reco is a primitive-sounding instrument made from bamboo. Rego (1968, p. 85) describes it like this:
‘The ganzá or reco-reco known in Bahia, is made of bamboo buds with transverse grooves over which a metal rod is passed.’
6.4. Agogô
Rego (1968, p. 87) states that ‘The agogô is an iron percussion musical instrument that entered Brazil via Africa’. The author also says that the term agogô belongs to the Nagô language and means bell.
6.5. Atabaque
The atabaque, a percussion instrument used in Afro-Brazilian ceremonies, can also often be found in capoeira rodas. Rego (1968, p. 83) puts it this way: ‘the term atabaque is of Arab origin, and is unanimously accepted by Arab etymologists’.
Rego (1968, p. 85) states:
‘although Africans already knew the atabaque and even brought some species from Africa, I believe that when they arrived in Brazil, they found it already brought by Portuguese hands, to be used in religious festivals and processions in circumstances identical to the pandeiro and the adufe.’
According to Vieira (1998, p. 106):
‘the use of the atabaque meets with resistance from the older mestres because this instrument produces a loud sound, which prevents the capoeirista from distinguishing the touch being played by the berimbau.’
For those who use this instrument in the capoeira roda, Capoeira (1985, p. 58) teaches:
‘whoever plays the atabaque has to realise that if he puts his hand hard on the leather it will drown out the sound of the berimbaus. […].
You have to look for a volume that gives support, that makes a mark on top of which the berimbaus can give their message.’
6.6. Caxixi
The caxixi is a closed basket containing seeds, used in the capoeira game in Bahia and also in candomblé (Cascudo, 1972).
According to Rego (1968, p. 87),
‘the caxixi is a small rattle made of straw, braided with a gourd base, cut into a circular shape and the top straight, ending with a handle of the same straw.’
The dry seeds placed inside the caxixi give it its characteristic sound when shaken. Usually the caxixi is played with the hand that holds the drumstick, together with the berimbau.
7. CONCLUSION
By analysing the theoretical framework consulted and respecting the limitations of the study, it can be concluded that the history of capoeira is closely linked to black people in Brazil.
One of the reasons that contributed to hindering knowledge about the origins of capoeira was the fact that Ruy Barbosa, when he was Minister of Finance, with the argument of erasing the black history of slavery, ordered the incineration of a vast amount of documentation relating to this period.
Most authors claim that capoeira was brought to Brazil by Bantu blacks.
For a long time, capoeira was disguised and hidden from the plantation owners and overseers.
Today it is considered a cultural manifestation born out of the black struggle for freedom. Even after slavery was abolished, capoeira was persecuted and included in the old Penal Code.
Mestres Pastinha and Bimba are considered the representatives of the Angola and Regional capoeira styles, respectively. The rhythmic part of capoeira is mainly led by the berimbaus and pandeiros, and there are also instruments such as the reco-reco, agogo and atabaque.
REFERENCES
- ALMEIDA, Raimundo César Alves de. The saga of mestre bimba. Salvador: Ginga Associação de Capoeira, 1994.
- AREIAS, Almir das. What is capoeira. 2. ed. São Paulo: Brasiliense, 1996.
- AREIAS, Anande das. What is capoeira. 4. ed. São Paulo: Ed. da Tribo, 1983.
- ARNT, Ricardo; BANALUME NETO, Ricardo. The face of Zumbi. Revista Superinteressante, São Paulo, ano 9, n. 11, p. 30-42, nov. 1995.
- CAPOEIRA, Nestor. Getúlio Vargas’ “rhetoric of the body” and its effects on capoeira today. Revista Camará Capoeira, São Paulo, ano 1, n. 5, p. 25-27, nov. 1999.
- CAPOEIRA, Nestor. Capoeira: pequeno manual do jogador. 4. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Record, 1998.
- CAPOEIRA, Nestor. Galo já cantou. Rio de Janeiro: Arte Hoje, 1985.
- CASCUDO, Câmara. Dictionary of Brazilian folklore. 3. ed. Rio de Janeiro: Ediouro, 1972.
- DOSSAR, Kenneth. Capoeira: an African based tradition in United States. Joperd, Reston, v. 62, no. 2, p. 42-44, Feb. 1991.
- FREITAS, Jorge Luiz de. Capoeira infantil: a arte de brincar com o próprio corpo. Curitiba: Editora Abadá, 1997.
- MARINHO, Inezil Penna. Subsídios para a história da capoeiragem no Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: Tupy, 1956.
